tape holds the skin and the dermaceuticals are applied on it at different time intervals.
The response observed will be noted according to the intensity scale of 0–4, where
0 represents no blanching and 1–4 represent the increase in the array of blanching
(Clanachan et al. 1980).
14.4.5 Confocal Scanning Microscopy
The use of confocal scanning microscopy in the dermatokinetics helps in the
assessment of distribution and penetration of the drug into the skin. In this, the use
of dye or the fluorescent coating drug is used for easy detection of the applied
product (Thotakura et al. 2017).
Technologies for enhancing the skin permeability can be classified into two active
methods: (a) electrical method or (b) mechanical method.
14.4.6 Electrical Method
This method includes iontophoresis and electroporation techniques.
14.4.6.1 Iontophoresis
This technique enhances the permeation of the topically applied payloads by the
application of a low electric current (Wang et al. 1993; Turner et al. 1997). This
technique employs a different mechanism for different drug molecules and includes
electrorepulsion (for charged solutes), electropertubation (for both charged and
uncharged), and electro-osmosis (for uncharged solutes). Various parameters such
as current intensity, pH, competitive ion effect, and electrode type may affect the
iontophoresis process (Banga et al. 1999). E-TRANS® technology works on
electrotransport principle, which is developed by the ALZA Corporation (Brown
et al. 2006).
14.4.6.2 Electroporation
This technique uses a high voltage pulse for the delivery of the drug into the skin.
High voltages (100 V) are used for few milliseconds for the drug molecule for the
penetration. For enhancing the permeability, lipophilicity and size with a molecular
weight greater than 7 kDA play a crucial role (Denet et al. 2004).
14.4.7 Mechanical Methods
14.4.7.1 Microneedle-Based Devices
This device consists of a drug reservoir which penetrates the stratum corneum and
epidermis. Macroflux® microprojection array was developed by ALZA Corporation.
These needles are used topically, and the size ranges from 50 to 200 μm. These
needles allow the unhindered movement of the drug (Brown et al. 2006).
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